值类型的变量直接包含值。换言之, 变量引用的位置就是值内存中实际存储的位置。

引用类型的变量存储的是对一个对象实例的引用(通常为内存地址)。
复制引用类型的值时,复制的只是引用。这个引用非常小(32位机器时4 字节引用)
除string 和object 是引用类型,所有C# 内建类型都是值类型。C#也 允许用户自定义值类型。
结构是一种自定义的值类型,它使用关键字struct。 例如:
- struct Angle
- {
- public Angle(int degrees, int minutes, int seconds)
- {
- Degrees = degrees;
- Minutes = minutes;
- Seconds = seconds;
- }
- // Using C# 6.0 read-only, automatically implememted properties.
- public int Degrees { get; }
- public int Minutes { get; }
- public int Seconds { get; }
- public Angle Move(int degrees, int minutes, int seconds)
- {
- return new Angle(Degrees + degrees, Minutes + minutes, Seconds + seconds);
- }
- }
- struct Angle
- {
- //……
- // ERROR: Fields cannot be initialized at declaration time
- // private int _Degrees = 42;
- }
所有值类型都有自定义的无参构造器将值类型的实例初始化成默认状态。所以总可以合法使用new操作符创建值类型的变量。除此之外,还可使用default操作符生成结构的默认值。例如:
- struct Angle
- {
- public Angle(int hours, int minutes)
- : this(hours, minutes, default(int))
- {}
- public Angle(int degrees, int minutes, int seconds)
- {
- Degrees = degrees;
- Minutes = minutes;
- Seconds = seconds;
- }
- public int Degrees { get; }
- public int Minutes { get; }
- public int Seconds { get; }
- public Angle Move(int degrees, int minutes, int seconds)
- {
- return new Angle(Degrees + degrees, Minutes + minutes, Seconds + seconds);
- }
- }
转换的步骤如下:

- static void Main()
- {
- int totalCount;
- System.Collections.ArrayList list = new System.Collections.ArrayList();
- Console.Write("Enter a number between 2 and 1000:");
- totalCount = int.Parse(Console.ReadLine());
- // Execution-time error:
- // list.Add(0); // Cast to double or 'D' suffix required. Whether cast or using 'D' suffix,
- list.Add((double)0); // boxing
- list.Add((double)1); // boxing
- for(int count = 2; count < totalCount; count++)
- {
- list.Add(
- ((double)list[count - 1] + // unboxing
- (double)list[count - 2])); // unboxing
- }
- foreach(double count in list) // unboxing
- Console.Write("{0}, ", count);//boxing
- }
- class Program
- {
- static void Main()
- {
- Angle angle = new Angle(25, 58, 23);
- object objectAngle = angle; // Box
- Console.Write(((Angle)objectAngle).Degrees);
- ((Angle)objectAngle).MoveTo(26, 58, 23); // Unbox, modify unboxed value, and discard value
- Console.Write(", " + ((Angle)objectAngle).Degrees);
- ((IAngle)angle).MoveTo(26, 58, 23); // Box, modify boxed value, and discard reference to box
- Console.Write(", " + ((Angle)angle).Degrees);
- ((IAngle)objectAngle).MoveTo(26, 58, 23); // Modify boxed value directly
- Console.WriteLine(", " + ((Angle)objectAngle).Degrees);
- }
- }
- interface IAngle
- {
- void MoveTo(int hours, int minutes, int seconds);
- }
- struct Angle : IAngle
- {
- public Angle(int degrees, int minutes, int seconds)
- {
- Degrees = degrees;
- Minutes = minutes;
- Seconds = seconds;
- }
- // NOTE: This makes Angle mutable, against the general guideline
- public void MoveTo(int degrees, int minutes, int seconds)
- {
- Degrees = degrees;
- Minutes = minutes;
- Seconds = seconds;
- }
- public int Degrees {get; set;}
- public int Minutes {get; set;}
- public int Seconds {get; set;}
- }
- enum ConnectionState
- {
- Disconnected,
- Connecting,
- Connected,
- Disconnecting
- }
- enum ConnectionState : short
- {
- Disconnected,
- Connecting = 10,
- Connected,
- Joined = Connected,
- Disconnecting
- }
- public static void Main()
- {
- ThreadPriorityLevel priority = (ThreadPriorityLevel)Enum.Parse(
- typeof(ThreadPriorityLevel), "Idle");
- Console.WriteLine(priority);
- }
- public static void Main()
- {
- System.Diagnostics.ThreadPriorityLevel priority;
- if(Enum.TryParse("Idle", out priority))
- {
- Console.WriteLine(priority);
- }
- }
- [Flags]
- public enum FileAttributes
- {
- None = 0, // 000000000000000
- ReadOnly = 1 << 0, // 000000000000001
- Hidden = 1 << 1, // 000000000000010
- System = 1 << 2, // 000000000000100
- Directory = 1 << 4, // 000000000010000
- Archive = 1 << 5, // 000000000100000
- Device = 1 << 6, // 000000001000000
- Normal = 1 << 7, // 000000010000000
- Temporary = 1 << 8, // 000000100000000
- SparseFile = 1 << 9, // 000001000000000
- ReparsePoint = 1 << 10, // 000010000000000
- Compressed = 1 << 11, // 000100000000000
- Offline = 1 << 12, // 001000000000000
- NotContentIndexed = 1 << 13, // 010000000000000
- Encrypted = 1 << 14, // 100000000000000
- }
- public static void ChapterMain()
- {
- string fileName = @"enumtest.txt";
- System.IO.FileInfo file = new System.IO.FileInfo(fileName);
- file.Attributes = FileAttributes.Hidden | FileAttributes.ReadOnly;
- Console.WriteLine(“{0} | {1} = {2}”, FileAttributes.Hidden, FileAttributes.ReadOnly, (int)file.Attributes);
- if((file.Attributes & FileAttributes.Hidden) != FileAttributes.Hidden)
- throw new Exception("File is not hidden.");
- if((file.Attributes & FileAttributes.ReadOnly) != FileAttributes.ReadOnly)
- throw new Exception("File is not read-only.");
- }
- [Flags]
- enum DistributedChannel
- {
- None = 0,
- Transacted = 1,
- Queued = 2,
- Encrypted = 4,
- Persisted = 16,
- FaultTolerant = Transacted | Queued | Persisted
- }
- public struct Coordinate
- {
- public Coordinate(Longitude longitude, Latitude latitude)
- {
- Longitude = longitude;
- Latitude = latitude;
- }
- public Longitude Longitude { get; }
- public Latitude Latitude { get; }
- public override string ToString() =>$"{ Longitude } { Latitude }";
- }
- public struct Longitude { }
- public struct Latitude { }
散列码的作用是生成与对象值对应的数字,从而高效地平衡散列表。 为了获得良好的GetHashCode() 的实现,请参照以下原则
- 必须:相等的对象必须有相等的散列值。(若a.Equals(b)),则 a.GetHashCode ()== b.GetHashCode()
- 必须:在特定对象的生存期内,GetHashCode() 始终返回相同的值,即使对象数据发生了变化。
- 必须: GetHashCode() 不应引发任何异常。它总是成功返回一个值
- 性能: 散列码应尽可能唯一
- 性能: 可能的散列码的值应当尽可能在int 范围内平均分布
- 性能: GetHashCode() 的性能应该优化,它通常在Equals 中实现用于“短路”一次完整的相等性比较。所以当类型作为字典集合中的key 使用时,会频繁调用该方法
- 性能:两个对象的细微差别应造成散列码的极大差异。 理想情况下,1位的差异应造成散列码平均16位的差异,这有助于保持散列的平衡性
- 安全性: 攻击者应该难以伪造具有特定散列值的对象
在重写Equals或者将类作为散列表集合的键时,需要重写GetHashCode。(如:Collections.HashTable 和 Collections.Generic.Dictionary)
- public struct Coordinate
- {
- public Coordinate(Longitude longitude, Latitude latitude)
- {
- Longitude = longitude;
- Latitude = latitude;
- }
- public Longitude Longitude { get; }
- public Latitude Latitude { get; }
- public override int GetHashCode()
- {
- int hashCode = Longitude.GetHashCode();
- // As long as the hash codes are not equal
- if(Longitude.GetHashCode() != Latitude.GetHashCode())
- {
- hashCode ^= Latitude.GetHashCode(); // eXclusive OR
- }
- return hashCode;
- }
- public override string ToString() => string.Format("{0} {1}", Longitude, Latitude);
- }
- public struct Longitude { }
- public struct Latitude { }
通常采用的方法是像相关类型的散列码应用XOR 操作符,并确保XOR的操作数不相近或相等。否则结果全为零。在操作数相近或相等的情况下,考虑改为使用移位和加法的操作。
为了进行更细致的控制,应该使用移位操作符来分解比int 大的类型。 例如,对于一个名为value 的long类型,int GetHashCode() {return ((int)value ^ (int)(value >>32))} ;
如果基类不是object, 应该在XOR 赋值中包含base.GetHashCode()
假如计算得到的值可能改变,或者哉将值缓存之后能显著优化性能,就应该对散列值进行缓存。
对象同一性 和相等的对象值
实现Equals
重写Equals 例子:
- //例1:
- public sealed class ProductSerialNumber
- {
- public ProductSerialNumber(string productSeries, int model, long id)
- {
- ProductSeries = productSeries;
- Model = model;
- Id = id;
- }
- public string ProductSeries { get; }
- public int Model { get; }
- public long Id { get; }
- public override int GetHashCode()
- {
- int hashCode = ProductSeries.GetHashCode();
- hashCode ^= Model; // Xor (eXclusive OR)
- hashCode ^= Id.GetHashCode(); // Xor (eXclusive OR)
- return hashCode;
- }
- public override bool Equals(object obj)
- {
- if(obj == null )
- return false;
- if(ReferenceEquals(this, obj))
- return true;
- if(this.GetType() != obj.GetType())
- return false;
- return Equals((ProductSerialNumber)obj);
- }
- public bool Equals(ProductSerialNumber obj)
- {
- return ((obj != null) && (ProductSeries == obj.ProductSeries) &&
- (Model == obj.Model) && (Id == obj.Id));
- }
- //....
- }
-
- //例2:
- public static void Main()
- {
- ProductSerialNumber serialNumber1 =new ProductSerialNumber("PV", 1000, 09187234);
- ProductSerialNumber serialNumber2 = serialNumber1;
- ProductSerialNumber serialNumber3 = new ProductSerialNumber("PV", 1000, 09187234);
- // These serial numbers ARE the same object identity.
- if(!ProductSerialNumber.ReferenceEquals(serialNumber1, serialNumber2))
- throw new Exception("serialNumber1 does NOT " + "reference equal serialNumber2");
- // And, therefore, they are equal.
- else if(!serialNumber1.Equals(serialNumber2))
- throw new Exception("serialNumber1 does NOT equal serialNumber2");
- else {
- Console.WriteLine("serialNumber1 reference equals serialNumber2");
- Console.WriteLine("serialNumber1 equals serialNumber2");
- }
- // These serial numbers are NOT the same object identity.
- if(ProductSerialNumber.ReferenceEquals(serialNumber1, serialNumber3))
- throw new Exception("serialNumber1 DOES reference " + "equal serialNumber3");
- // But they are equal (assuming Equals is overloaded).
- else if(!serialNumber1.Equals(serialNumber3) || serialNumber1 != serialNumber3)
- throw new Exception("serialNumber1 does NOT equal serialNumber3");
- Console.WriteLine("serialNumber1 equals serialNumber3");
- }
实现操作符的过程称为操作符重载. C# 支持重载所有操作符,除了x.y、 f(x)、 new、 typeof、default、checked、unchecked、delegate、is、as、= 和=> 之外
一旦重写了Equals, 就可能出现不一致情况,对两个对象执行Equals()可能返回true,但 ==操作符返回false. 因为==默认也是执行引用相等性检查。因此需要重载相等(==)和不相等操作符(!=)
- public sealed class ProductSerialNumber
- {
- //...
- public static bool operator ==(ProductSerialNumber leftHandSide, ProductSerialNumber rightHandSide)
- {
- // Check if leftHandSide is null. (operator== would be recursive)
- if(ReferenceEquals(leftHandSide, null))
- {
- return ReferenceEquals(rightHandSide, null); // Return true if rightHandSide is also nulland false otherwise.
- }
- return (leftHandSide.Equals(rightHandSide));
- }
- public static bool operator !=(ProductSerialNumber leftHandSide, ProductSerialNumber rightHandSide)
- {
- return !(leftHandSide == rightHandSide);
- }
- }
+、-、* 、/ 、%、|、^、<<和>> 操作符都被实现为二元静态方法。其中至少一个参数的类型是包容类型。方法名由operator 加操作名构成。
- public struct Arc
- {
- public Arc(Longitude longitudeDifference, Latitude latitudeDifference)
- {
- LongitudeDifference = longitudeDifference;
- LatitudeDifference = latitudeDifference;
- }
- public Longitude LongitudeDifference { get; }
- public Latitude LatitudeDifference { get; }
- }
- public struct Coordinate
- {
- //....
- public static Coordinate operator +(Coordinate source, Arc arc)
- {
- Coordinate result = new Coordinate( new Longitude( source.Longitude + arc.LongitudeDifference),
- new Latitude(source.Latitude + arc.LatitudeDifference));
- return result;
- }
- }
只要重载了二元操作符,就自动重载了赋值操作符和二元操作符的结合(+=、-=、/=、%=、&=、|=、^=、<<=和>>=. 所以可以直接使用下列代码 coordinate += arc;
它等价于: coordinate = coordinate + arc;
- public struct Latitude
- {
- //……
- // UNARY
- public static Latitude operator -(Latitude latitude)
- {
- return new Latitude(-latitude.Degrees);
- }
-
- public static Latitude operator +(Latitude latitude)
- {
- return latitude;
- }
- }
- public struct Example
- {
- //public static bool operator false(object item)
- //{
- // return true;
- // // ...
- //}
- //public static bool operator true(object item)
- //{
- // return true;
- // // ...
- //}
- }
开发者可以将程序的不同部分转移到单独的编译单元中,这些单元称为类库,或者简称库。 然后程序可以引用和依赖类库来提供自己的一部分功能。
更改程序集目标:
编译器允许通过/target 选项创建下面4种不同的程序集类型
- 控制台程序: 省略target 或者指定 /target:exe
- 类库:/target: library
- Window 可执行程序:/target: winexe
- 模块:/target : module
引用程序集:
C# 允许开发者在命令行上引用程序集。方法是使用 /reference (/r)。
例如:csc.exe /R:Coordinates.dll Program.cs
